Mrugendra Vinod
Introduction
VEDiC literature is basically oral and hence called Śruti. It was committed to writing to facilitate learning in historical period. Vedic literature is made up of śākhās. Śākhās have Saṁhitā, Brāhmaṇa and Āraṇyaka as names of books. These śākhās have been compiled by the vedācāryas in whose name the texts are specifically known like the Taittirīya, Maitrayāṇī and Mādhyandīna. They describe karma and vidyā. These rituals were in practice even before the śākhā compilation time as the śākhās describe many versions of the same ritual. The traditional view of Vedics about their own literature is different from the European view of Vedas as literature of primitives. Whole of this body of sentences has been shown to be internally consistent. It is not provable to be false by any other testimonies of pratyakṣa and anumāna. Mimāṁsā of twenty adhyāyas has shown this without assuming anything more than the recursive process of unaltered oral transmission from a guru to a śiṣya called the apaoureṣeya sampradāya. This is very similar to biological reproduction of all living creatures. The adherents of the theory of emergence called Ārambhavāda do not accept such a view.
We have been studying the Vedas and their practices since 1989 after relinquishing a career in Computer Architecture. We have seen the reluctance of the brāhmaṇas to change anything in their rituals and oral texts. These practices are reminders of what modern scientists consider as Chalcolithic culture. We see the use of copper blades for shaving hair and stone tools like pestle-mortar for grinding. The use of buck skin for spreading below the pestle reminds us of tribal practices. The thatched roofs and wearing skins are still practised. Such anachronistic practices allow us to take this oral heritage as folk literature.
While studying the Haṛappan archaeological finds, we were surprised to see clear evidences of aśvamedha in the abundant pictographs of animals and other objects of hitherto unascertained purpose. The miniature iconography is becoming of this very refined culture as visible in its town planning. This art is not documented in any texts and must be considered as folk practices. The rituals must have been seen by the artists and converted to suit the purpose of visual representative rendering. The purpose of seals as personal identity is rather apparent. The large area, where these uniform seals are found, suggests a central authority issuing these to its officers. Hitherto, such a hypothesis has been rejected due to lack of corroborative evidences. But once the seal and tablet iconography are convincingly shown to represent aśvamedha ritual, it will be obvious that all this region was under a federal government. Gomr̥ga and other animal motifs could well have been the state emblems appearing on the 1,400 odd seals found till now, all of them over a large territory governed by this dynasty of sovereigns over Mature Haṛappan period of around 300 years.
In this paper, we wish to share our observations with the scholars of Haṛappan culture. To share our discovery with modern scholars, we first explain salient and relevant features of aśvamedha.
Description of a Typical Aśvamedha
Generally, the Vedic people living in the plains of north India had many nations called Kuru, Pañcāla, Bharata and others. Their king may perform aśvamedha after victory. He is preferably a sovereign. Aśvamedha is the name of a collection of many procedures performed over a year culminating in a three-day Soma sacrifice. It is started on Caitra pūrṇimā. A location with pious name is chosen as devayajña. It should have a waterbody on the east which has fresh water and where it is easy to perform all the bathing and sprinkling procedures. The king invites his priests and ushers them in on elephants or chariots. The aśva is prepared with elaborate procedures of bathing and sacrifices. It is left to wander freely. It is protected by 400 men in arms. Meanwhile, the king and his priests are involved in a year-long ten days cyclic performance of narrating passages from different disciplines and eulogizing the deeds of this performer and putting him in the list of illustrious ancient kings. The kingdom is looked after by adhvaryu as the caretaker king till the end of the ritual. After eleven months, aśva is held in a stable and stall-fed to be directed back to devayajña.
On the last new-moon day of the year, the fire-altar preparation begins. The extended procedure of dīkṣā is performed. The vedī is twice the ordinary mahāvedī and agnicayana is three times the ordinary fire-altar. Yūpa is a ceremonial peg to which the sacrificial animal is tied. Aśvamedha has twenty- one yūpas of twenty-one cubit height unlike any other ritual. The first Soma- sacrifice day is a Catuṣṭoma-Agniṣṭoma. To the dakṣiṇā of the aśvamedha is the wealth of all the lands in possession of the king excluding that of brāhmaṇas. It is distributed evenly in these three days. In the night of the first day thirty- six adhvaryus offer cereal sacrifice all through the night till the sunrise. The second day is remarkable due to many specialities. This day is ekaviṁśa ukthya with mahānāmni soma. Two extra gold and silver mahimā vessels are filled with extra soma. Udgata is replaced by the aśva in the prasarpaṇa for bahiṣpavamāna. Sāmagāna is replaced by the neighing of the aśva. For savanīya paśu we have a great collection of animals. The central yūpa has aśva, tūpara and gomr̥ga. Thirteen others are held around the aśva. They sort of cover the aśva and are called paryaṅga. Other twenty yūpas have eighteen domestic animals each. Domestic animals of a variety of features are limited to goat, sheep and cattle. This day is unique in using wild animals. A zoological assemblage of over a 100 wild species of animals, birds and even insects are used here. The most striking aspect is the difference in their holding method. The domestic animals are tied to twenty-one yūpas but the wild animals are held in suitable confinements between these twenty-one yūpas. The central yūpa has 210 domestic animals including aśva and gomr̥ga. This yūpa has 210 + 129 = 339 svarus. This includes the 129 svarus for that many āraṇya paśu held in the twenty gaps between the yūpas. After the upakaraṇa of animals, aśva is decorated. The three wives are mahiṣī the queen, vavatā the favourite and parivr̥kti the disfavoured. They are helped by 100 each of kṣatriya daughters, wives of soldiers and civilian officers. One thousand beads each of gold, silver and pearls are stringed into the body hair of aśva. Shell beads are knotted so that these do not slip out. These wives also apply fragrance onto aśva. This is followed by a ceremony of yoking this aśva with two others to triga chariot. The procession returns after aśva smells waters. Aśva is offered annahoma remnants by the wives. The wife whose offering is eaten by aśva is indicated to have her offspring as the future king. After tying the aśva again, paryagnikaraṇa of all the animals is done. After this, wild animals are released. Domestic animals are led for death by strangling. For the aśva, tūpara and gomr̥ga, cloth dipped in ghee and gold-pillow are laid below. Aśva is strangled by blanket or linen and others by strings tied around the neck. After the aśva is dead, wives perform the mourning act called dhuvanam. This is followed by the Queen-Prajāpati act. Queen sleeps with the dead horse and takes its organ in her lap. They are shrouded and a seemingly obscene but necessarily symbolic dialogue is carried out by priests and ladies. In ordinary animal sacrifice, the role of wife is restricted to rejuvenating the organs of the dead animal. This is no place to discuss the import of such rituals, but the comments of modern scholars about such Vedic rituals befit our human folly and are best ignored. We are offering these details with the view of establishing certain salient features of this ritual. This is followed by marking of aśva, tūpara and gomr̥ga by needles for careful dissection without damaging skin, hair and bones. Detail of aśva as not having vāpa but having layer of fat instead needs further research. The specific mention of aśva having thirty-four ribs while other animals having twenty-six ribs should also be noted here. Mahimā vessels filled with extraneous soma are offered before and after vāpayāga. The trachea of gomr̥ga and hoof of aśva find special use for sviṣṭakr̥ta homa with blood of aśva. Again, no other animal sacrifice has such blood collection procedure. Significance of such acts is not yet known but these details may help in future works. This is followed by the ceremony of abhiṣeka of the yajamāna like in rājasūya. The various body parts are rearranged for aśva, tūpara and gomr̥ga and are offered without any remnants unlike all other animals. The smell is considered as specially purifying. Third day of Soma sacrifice is sarvaṣṭoma atirātra with Br̥hat sāma. This has twelve cattle including gomr̥ga and zebu without horns. The Avabhr̥ta ablution is followed by a special act of āhuti on a bald man. The expiatory nature of this Aśvamedha ritual is realized here and all the sinners and pious join hands as all are considered pure now. [The Appendix has a few passages of original text with translation.
Haṛappan Evidence
Haṛappan script eludes decipherment despite all the efforts of scholars working with various principles. Haṛappan iconography is more amenable because of its visual expression of animals and other familiar objects.
We have noticed the search for a ritual in this Haṛappan studies [Mohenjo- Daro and Indus Civilization, pp. 42-78]. We decided to start afresh from the primary evidences available to us. We will cite the seals and tablets as in Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions. This corpus is already sorted out on various other bases, so we have to recompile a table for our purpose. We have used aurochs of Wall of Babylon and Sumerian seal with taurine cattle for visual comparison. We have also gathered evidence of the presence of Bos namadicus in archaeological excavations in Bengal as an indication of its survival in Haṛappan times in Gangetic plains. For the study of yūpa, we have relied on textual reconstruction of central yūpa with multiple svarus coupled with the present practice of yūpa. For identifying other animals from Aśvamedha list, we have used their popular names. For interpretation of certain scenes depicted in Haṛappan seals and tablets, we have shown only certain reliable features without speculating about the rest.
CORRELATION BETWEEN ANIMAL MOTIF AND CULT OBJECT
Certain Haṛappan seals show an animal with an object. The correlation between the animal motif and the object below has been well known right since the first published Mohenjo-Daro and Indus Civilization of John Marshall. We show the relevant summary in Table 6.1.
This gives us our first significant feature. Unicorns are with standard like object and wild animals are with manger like objects.
Unicorn = Urus = Bos namadicus = Gomr̥ga
The comparison of Haṛappan seals with the Bulls of Ishtar on the Walls of Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar in 536 BCE offers some remarkable similarity.
Remember that the Mesopotamian bull is an approximately 6′ wall sculpture and Haṛappan bull is a < 6 cm engraving made 1,500 years before that. Note the bull’s genitals, earlobe, curve of the horn and tail. This suggests that the unicorns are aurochs in a profile view. Some scholars say that the
Table 6.1: Animal and Object Seal Data
| Animal | Object | No. of Seals | Details |
| Unicorn Bull | Standard like cult object | 1,200 | M 1-231, etc. |
| Urus | Standard like cult object | 5 | M 232-33, etc. |
| Bison | Manger | 70 | M 234-55, etc. |
| Bison | Nil | 8 | H 577-84 |
| Zebu | Nil | 50 | M 256-65, etc. |
| Buffalo | Manger | 12 | M 266-68, etc. |
| Buffalo | Nil | 3 | M 269-70 |
| Rhino | Manger | 11 | M 274-77, etc. |
| Rhino | Nil | 4 | M 1133-34, etc. |
| Rhino | Standard like cult object | 1 | M 1135 |
| Tiger | Manger | 7 | M 289, etc. |
| Elephant | Nil | 38 | M 278-86, etc. |
| Elephant | Manger | 1 | M 1152 |
unicorn is a fabulous animal with a single horn. We observe the earlobe also to be single like the horn. Do we expect a fabulous animal with a single earlobe? A Sumer seal depicted here (fig. 6.2) shows a single horn and a single earlobe on a herd of cattle. We clearly see these to be ordinary taurine cows and calves.
This gives us Unicorn = Urus (or Auroch).
The fossil and archaic bone remains confirm the presence of a species of taurine wild bull in India till 1000 BCE. Bos namadicus has been reported from Chalcolithic sites of Susunia and Mochpal by Banerjee (1976) and Ghosh (1977). Fossil remains were found in the Narmadā Valley and Kāṭhiāwāṛ. Grigson (1985) cited in indpaedia.com says: “wild cattle Bos primigenius (the aurochs) and its smaller Indian subspecies Bos namadicus were endemic to the entire region”. The last specimen of Bos primigenius, a cousin of the Indian bull, was found in Poland in 1637 [redlist for extinct animals]. This gives us Unicorn = Urus = Bos namadicus.
Bull of Ishtar and a Haṛappan bull
A Sumer seal
What is gomr̥ga? The great commentator Sāyaṇa in fourteenth century does not seem to know it. This is evident from his tentative suggestion of this being a hybrid of bull and deer.
Ük`axghu% i’kqLrwij%A Ük`axokUeuq”;fgald% /wrZ% cyhonZ% xkse`x%A ;}kxksfgj.k;ks% la;ksxsumRiUu% ladh.kZtkfr% xkse`x%A – Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 3.8.20
This suggests that gomr̥ga is a name of an extinct animal. Mīmāṁsā rule of “fidusekf/dj.k” states that when the present-day Vedics do not know a word then we must take recourse to its usage in other languages first. We have
noted the use of word usra for gomr̥ga [passage cited in Appendix]. This usra is a cognate of urus for auroch bull in Europe. This suggests gomr̥ga is an auroch. We also note m{kk = ox; xkS% = cow. Vedic Index of McDonnel and Keith has the following entry:
Gomr̥ga a species of ox, now called Gayal (Bos gavaeus), is mentioned in the list of victims at the Aśvamedha (horse-sacrifice) in the Yajurveda Saṁhitās and the Brāhmaṇas. In the Taittirīya Saṁhitā, it is declared to be neither wild nor a tame animal; this presumably means that it was semi domesticated, or perhaps that it was both tamed and found wild. With the name of this animal may be compared the mr̥ga mahiṣa, which is clearly mentioned as wild in the R̥gveda.
This entry is quite close but still short of truth. Probably, the authors did not know Babylon bulls and Haṛappan unicorns, else they would have sure mentioned them. But it shows the description of gomr̥ga being close to that of urus. Gomr̥ga appears to be a semi-wild variety of bovine with great speed by its association with Vāyu as the devatā in a Taittirīya Saṁhitā( 2.1.10) passage:
Offer gomr̥ga to Vāyu Devatā if an innocent is accused of murder, i.e. who has not killed but is accused. This gomr̥ga is neither domestic nor wild.
This name of a species has two parts. Go = bull + mr̥ga = large wild herbivorous. This brings us close to Bos namadicus. A further confirmation is obtained by the list of eleven gavya animals found in the Śrauta texts. (Apastamba Śrautasūtra 19.16.16)
A point of dissimilarity between unicorn icon and real auroch is raised here. The shoulder has a peculiar feature, mostly of a saddle. The neck is long and decorated in many a seal. The mouth appears to be like that of ass or horse. In fact, it is tempting to treat this icon as a composite of aśva and gomr̥ga. We have noted the decoration of aśva in Aśvamedha. The saddle can be better explained with this suggestion. Our thesis suffers no serious threat from such a supposition. But the close resemblance of this unicorn icon with Babylonian bull wall sculpture leaves not much space for such an assumption of composite animal depiction over real animal depiction. The aberration is to be explained as the artistic freedom in iconography to remind us of a ceremonial treatment of associated aśva which is not being directly portrayed due to religious constraint shown elsewhere in this paper.
So we get Unicorn = Urus = Bos namadicus = Gomr̥ga.
THE STANDARD LIKE OBJECT ASSOCIATED WITH URUS IS YŪPA
The so-called cult object is not yet recognized though scrutiny has been accorded to the figure. This object has many independent depictions as in H 195B including an ivory specimen M 2116.
It is also depicted in a procession scene on a tablet M 490 or HR 1546. It does not appear to have any mundane purpose. This object has three clear parts: (i) central shaft; (ii) top piece of thick disc inserted over the central shaft; and (iii) middle bowl like piece with a variety of decorations.
Yūpa and tablets HR 1546 and M 2116
First suggestion: This object is suggested to be an incense burner [MIC, p. 69]. This has been refuted by Mahadevan on the ground of absence of smoke signs. We do not think incense burner or a lamp post will explain these three remarkable parts.
Second suggestion: Upper disc is a cage for bird or a crib for horse [MIC, p. 384]. Again the objection is an insufficient explanation of the three parts.
Third suggestion: It is a soma filter in a Soma ritual. This suggestion is done by I. Mahadevan in a learned article (I. Mahadevan, 1983, Puratattva, nos. 13-14). The fatal objection is the absence of a shaft in the description of soma filter in the texts. Soma yajñas are still being performed and there is no semblance to this object in soma filter. But this ritual does have some other object which has a remarkable similarity to this icon.
Fourth suggestion: This is the central yūpa of an aśvamedha ritual. Every ȳupa has verily three discernible parts. A central shaft as the main body of yūpa is made by cutting and chiselling a tree with prescribed features. Upper hat like appendage called caṣala is made of the upper portion of the tree and is inserted in the top of the shaft. This assembly is raised in a pit in front of the fire altar. A rope of darbha (a type of sacred grass) called yūpa-raśana is tied in the waist region. Chiselled-off pieces are called svaru. One piece per animal is inserted in this yūpa-raśana. The central yūpa of aśvamedha has 239 svaru pieces as per Hiraṇyakeśi version. This figure may vary a little as per other versions. This yūpa would justify the details visible in some cult-object depictions. They show the shaft protruding out of the top. In a yūpa, the shaft must protrude out of the caṣala by 1-4 aṅgulas.( Taittirīya Saṁhitā 6.3.4, Āpastamba Saṁhitā 7.3.6)
The procession tablet showing a central animal and a few cult objects would indeed fit the aśvamedha ritual like none else. The central animal indeed could be our aśva though the tablet is too blurred to know. It may show multiple yūpas being brought to devayajña.
This icon of yūpa is apparently continued as indradhvaja symbol in later coins [Sharma, G.R., 1956, Coin Found in Kaushambi].
We may note the dhvaja-stambha with bali-pīṭham found in the south Indian temples as the Āgamic adaptations of this yūpa object. The eastern location of
Yūpa icon in indradhvaja and coin
this dhvaja-stambha also suits this as the temple is an Āgamic adaptation of the Vedic mahāvedī. The bali-pīṭham also fits the scheme as replacement of the animal sacrifice. Samudragupta’s aśvamedhaparākrama coin shows yūpa in a bent-over fashion. Haṛappan folk artists have chosen to show the salient features without dimensional accuracy. This is quite ingenuous seeing the space constraint.
The Vedic passages extoll yūpa as the highest abode of Viṣṇu. This explains the abundant depiction of the icon of yūpa in Vedic and post-Vedic traditions. Yūpa is the only visible remnant for a considerable time after the ritual performance. The yajña–maṇḍapa is burnt and the fire altar cannot be seen from a distance. These yūpas would also perish after a few years and even the agniciti in open will wither away. But this suits the temperament of the daivī- prakr̥ti of the Vedics. In later period, the desire for permanency of name and fame has overpowered the performers and kings. The stone yūpas raised in the memory of Vedic rituals are noted in Rajasthan in historical period [Epigraphica Indica, vol. 23, p. 42]. We may even venture to say that raising rock pillars and iron pillars with religious writings also mimics this yūpa.
THE MANGER ASSOCIATED WITH THE WILD ANIMALS IS ALSO A RITUALISTIC OBJECT
We know well that domestic animals like cows and horses are fed in a manger. But here we see animals like bison = gaur/gomr̥ga, buffalo = mahiṣa/ parasvan, rhino = khaḍga/vardhranāsa and tiger = vyāghra/tarakṣu. They are being associated with a manger. Naturally this cannot be a depiction of ordinary life. This suggests some ritualistic connotation. We have found a tablet H 176 which may show such an association.
Stone yūpas raised in the memory of Vedic rituals in Rajasthan
Tablet H 176. A and B sides (obverse and reverse)
The A side has a gomr̥ga with yūpa in realism on the left side. Note the short neck and head that is bent down. This does suggest that the gomr̥ga icon has an iconic element in the neck–shoulder–mouth region suggesting aśva. Also note the yūpa as going high above the animal. In reality, the yūpa of aśvamedha is 21 cubits high. Centre has a blurred human figure most probably with a horned headdress. A cage is shown on the right. We suggest that the artist is intending to show the real ritual element of vkjksd (āroka). The cage is for holding the ferocious or swift wild animals like mr̥ga, vyāghra or siṁha. This explains the sequence of gomr̥ga on yūpa-aśvamedha yajamāna or deity- wild animals in āroka. Further right is the three-letter inscription. Here we may suggest for future research that these three signs may not be a personal name as this piece is not a seal but a tablet in bas-relief. This may turn out very useful for deciphering the script as these three signs might denote the name of the ritual or the king rather than some common person. The B side shows the man-on-tree with tiger-looking-behind scene on the left. This scene is explained in a later topic. To follow our description of H 176, the right side shows a tiger in a manger and a small animal outside. We suggest this open manger to be the iconic representation of the cage on the other side. As noted above, cage is meant to hold ferocious animals in the Aśvamedha ritual. All the animals like bison, buffalo, rhino and tiger need to be held in cages according to the appended text of the Mānava Śrautasūtra. The generic word used in texts to denote suitable confinements to hold wild animals in the gaps of yūpas is āroka. Thus we conclude that a manger to be an iconic representation of āroka.
TABLET H 180 SUPPORTS AŚVAMEDHA AS BASIS OF ICONIFICATION
Aśvamedha has a curious ritual which was considered obscene by many modern scholars. In this, the queen sleeps with the dead horse as a symbol of Prajāpati for effecting the retrieval of the nation and glory. This explains the tablet H 180A right side showing a human figure with spread legs and a four-legged creature in connection with her womb. The very small insect like depiction with four legs and head should be compared to a seal with such spread skin, four legs, tail and head of unicorn M 297. The H 180A left side shows two tigers in duel. This suggests the kings in war. As we know from
Tablet H 180A and B
oral texts, Aśvamedha is performed after a victory. H 180B left side shows a warrior with a sword and a shield. This suggests the 400 guards of the wandering horse. They subsist on the local people who do not oppose. The sitting adversary may depict a surrender scene. This tablet again has same script symbols on both the sides which can be useful in further studies of script. Marshall sees the Mother Earth in the woman with a plant springing up from its womb suggesting some unknown cult of earth worship. He is careful not to have any Vedic rituals meddling here [MIC, vol. I, p. 52].
THE MAN ON TREE SCENE WITH A TIGER LOOKING BEHIND
This scene has many independent other depictions. This suggests some posture of this man on tree. The posture is brahmāsana. This brahmāsana guru is in Veda-pāṭha. This posture in front of their king himself is due to a prākaraṇa [T.B. 2.7.15.1; Sāyana Bhāṣya]. There, the king is called “son of r̥ṣis” and a tiger. We see here a tiger taking order and blessings of the gurus. We are inclined to see this scene as the king taking blessings of his guru in the forest to perform Aśvamedha or Rājasūya. The centre figure shows the yajamāna king in the posture of siddhāsana on a throne called āsandī. Compare this with many other anthropomorphic seals showing the same posture and horned headdress.
Tree scene
The tiger we suggest signifies the remarkable R̥cā in rājasūya abhiṣeka. Śikhā or jaṭā or the bangle worn by women does not mean female. This reminds us of Rājasūya where brāhmaṇas bestow upon him their respect and is considered as an exception to normal protocol.
In this tablet M 453 or Vs. 210 we see the yajamāna-king sitting on the āsandī with brāhmaṇa-priests sitting below in their typical respective postures. This reminds us of the famous procedure in rājasūya where brāhmaṇas sit below the kṣatriya and bestow upon him their brahmatva [ŚB14.2.23]. This is considered as an exception to normal protocol.
K-119 TERRACOTTA GRAFFITI SHOWS STRANGLING RITUAL
A terracotta graffiti piece from Kālībaṅgan shows a human figure strangling a shrouded animal figure. Such strangling is a unique feature of Vedic ritual of animal sacrifice. The other side is again the same horned human figure which we suggested to be the yajamāna king.
SOME MORE RITUALISTIC ELEMENTS
We see a religious scene enacted in M 442 A and B sides. A sitting yajamāna with a goat and some offering material faces the agni being shown as two aśvatta (pīpal) branches and a human horned figure meaning king inside.
The yajamāna king sitting on the āsandī
A human figure strangling a shrouded animal figure
The standing figures might mean deities overlooking the procedure or hotā priests called sapta hotāraḥ. Despite the vagueness of these elements, their depiction of a religious scene with fire and sacrifice is evident. See also M 488C.
Summary of Observations
- Aśvamedha, as a ritual, is depicted on Haṛappan seals showing animals that are specific to the
- The distinct treatment of unicorn bull vis-à-vis bison/buffalo/rhino/tiger is accounted for in this ritual.
M 442A and B and M488C
- Gomr̥ga is a semi-wild bull which is offered along with aśva and goat on the central yūpa.
- Yūpa is the ceremonial peg to which the sacrificial animal is tied. It is seen to have caṣāla on top and svaru in the There are twenty-one yūpas in a line in the front of the fire altar. The central yūpa is special in having ~230 svaru pieces decorating the staff. This yūpa has inspired the cult-object motif to be adopted as the icon.
- Yūpa is praised as the highest abode of Viṣṇu, the deity synonymous to yajña. This explains the independent use of cult-object icon. It is also continued as icon in later coins as indradhvaja and Āgamic temples as dhvaja-stambha with bali-pīṭha.
- Wild animals depicted in Haṛappan pictures are: Bison = gaur/gomr̥ga; 2. Buffalo = mahiṣa/parasvan;
- Rhino = khaḍga/vardharānasa; 4. Tiger =vyāghra/tarakṣu; 5. Crocodile/alligator = makara/nakra;
- Hare = Śaśa; 7. Śiśumār = Dragon; 8. Elephant = Hasti.
- Some of these are held in cages while the rest are in appropriate confinements like pots, nets and They are released after performing the ceremony of dedication to the respective deities. This is distinct from the domestic animals tied to yūpa along with aśva, goat and gomr̥ga. This explains the use of the “manger” icon.
- Aśva is the animal for the highest deity called Prajāpati and is also contemplated as Prajāpati. It might have been a taboo to show aśva of Aśvamedha.
- So the folk artists have discreetly chosen gomr̥ga in place of aśva with iconic adaptations such that it still reminds us of the aśvamedha.
- Queen sleeps with the dead horse as a symbol of Prajāpati for effecting the retrieval of the nation and This ritual may find expression in tablet H 180.
- Animal sacrifice by strangling is unique to Vedic This may find expression in K 119B.
Conclusion
Folk artists of ancient India have left us a trail of signs which when read together with their oral folklore leads us to their identity. Aśvamedha ritual has a distinct feature of holding wild animals in gaps of yūpas and releasing them unhurt after the dedication ceremony. The other animals include the aśva, goat and gomr̥ga on the central yūpa. These form the signature of aśvamedhayājī sovereign. This is demonstrated to be abundantly visible in Haṛappan seals and tablets. The uniform presence of gomr̥ga seals in the large area over a long period of Mature Haṛappā requires the presence of a single agency authorizing their owners to adorn it. Thus it is suggested that seals of animal-motif cult- object type belong to the officers of a dynasty of kings who have performed the Aśvamedha. It is not necessary at all that such a ritual was performed in any of the known Haṛappan sites. In fact, actual performance of ritual would be at some location outside human inhabitations as described in the texts. The evidence of Aśvamedha in Haṛappā would mean revision of all the non- traditional speculations about Vedic texts and vindication of the traditional view of the ancient.