-D.P. Sharma
–Madhuri Sharma
This paper deals with the roots of symbols in early historic art of South Asia, for in the art of Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization lie the roots that are observed in pre-Haṛappan and Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization, an art which continued in later historic period and is still existing in the folk and classical art of India.
Kālībaṅgan sites located on River Sarasvatī were first explored in 1917- 18 by Luigi Pio Tessitori. He died in 1919. He called it Gagghar, Sarasvatī and Kālībaṅgan civilization. Later, Moheṅjo-Daṛo and Haṛappā were excavated in 1930. It hardly matters if we call this civilization Haṛappan or Indus or Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization. Its meaning is same, i.e., Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization, and is dated 3000–2000 BCE. It was a Bronze Age urban civilization in north-west South Asia. Today, we have some 4,000 Haṛappan sites in north-west of south Asia and excavation has been carried out on 250 Haṛappan or Sindhu–Sarasvatī sites. Kālībaṅgan, Binjor, Rākhīgaṛhī, Chanhu-Daṛo, Moheṅjo-Daṛo, Bhiranna, Mehrgaṛh, Lakhaṅjo-Daṛo, Haṛappā, Dholāvīrā and Lothal were excavated on a larger scale. Rākhīgaṛhī is the largest Early and Mature Haṛappan site of Sindhu–Sarasvatī and it covered an area of more than 500 ha.
The new excavations were done in the Sindhu–Sarasvatī region at Mehrgaṛh, Shāhī Tump, Haṛappā, Sherikhān Tarakai and Lakhaṅjo-Daṛo, all located on the tributaries of River Sindhu in Pakistan. Excavations were also done on the Sarasvatī or its tributaries in the eastern region at Bhiranna, Binjor, Rākhīgaṛhī, Baror, Khiesara, Khanak, Kuṇāl, Giravat
Farmānā, Loharī Rāgho, Khānmer, Kālībaṅgan, Karanpurā, Gaṇeśvar and Dholāvīrā. All these Chalcolithic sites are Pre-Sindhu–Sarasvatī (5500–3600 BCE) sites and Early Sindhu–Sarasvatī (3500–3000 BCE) and go on to show the origin of Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization to be in north-west South Asia. These Pre- or Early Haṛappan Chalcolithic culture sites were contemporary of verbal or śruti (maukhika) traditions of the R̥gveda. The period of the Yajurveda Śruti tradition could be dated between 3200–2000 BCE. We can date the Śruti tradition of the Atharvaveda and the Sāmaveda between 2800–2000 BCE which is contemporary to Mature Urban Haṛappan or Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization. The R̥gveda was compiled (written) on bhojpatra (manuscript) or other writing material between 2800–1800 BCE. By that time, the Haṛappan script was developed.
The two Vedas, the Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda, were compiled or written between 1500–600 BCE and by this time the proto-Brāhmī Script was in a developing stage. Khohī and Kharoṣṭhī, both ran from right to left like Nūristānī or the old Persian script, were in place. The Haṛappan script and the old Persian script were written from right to left. The writing mode of proto-Brāhmī, Śaṅku, Nāgarī, Aramaic and Bactrian scripts was running from left to right. We have oldest evidence of proto-Brāhmī and Haṛappan scripts around (2000–1500 BCE) from Gujerkhari, Panipat (Haryana) which is on copper-hoard weapons of anthropomorphic figure. The unicorn is also carved on the middle part of this varāha-headed type copper anthropomorphic figure. We also have a double-headed inscribed male terracotta from Kālībaṅgan which is dated around 2000–1900 BCE.
According to P.K. Agrawal (2011), the rich language of symbolic alphabets was an essential aspect of south Asian early art and thought alike. Earlier publications of Srivastava (1991), Thomas Wilson (1896), Varshney (1990), Sharma (2012), Sharma and Sharma (2013) and others have documented in detail these symbols having their roots in Sindhu– Sarasvatī civilization art and seals.
Our Indian script was based on a language of symbols that was found spoken throughout from 4300 BCE to Early Historic period of 600 BCE to 700 CE and which found its expression on early south Asian art forms. This art appeared in a fully developed form in Maurya and Śuṅga periods’ art and architecture during 321–720 BCE. Further, multiple crosses in Ujjain symbol with a circle, Further, multiple seven circular depression, check-board type decoration, terracotta wheels with eight crosses and multiple circles are the ones that one can notice on early Indian coins in developing forms, having derived its inspiration from the Egvedic and Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization tradition.
Many art forms like horn-headed Paśupati, clay image of Mother Goddess or Aditi or Earth Goddess and ritual narration had their roots in the traditions of Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization (3000–2000 BCE). Also were the triśūla, triratna and śrīvatsa, four-petal flower, lotus, honeysuckle flower, nāgapuṣpa, brahma kamala, clock and anticlockwise svastika, necklace, sun, fish, bow and arrow circle, rectangle, triangle, multiheaded males and animal images. Lajjāgaurī-type symbol of Mother Goddess, yogī with half-closed eye, yogāsana, śaṅkha-nidhi, nandi (bull) or its anthropomorphic symbolic nandīpada shape-like garuḍa and nāga, pillar worship, (yūpa) citti or stūpa worship, sun worship, or Mother Goddess triangle symbol, sigma or river-type motif, trefoil design, tree of knowledge (bodhi tree, pīpal, kevalī, vr̥kṣa, etc.) were also manifest (Agrawal 2011; Sharma 2018).
After sixth century BCE, many of the above symbols continued in Early Historic period in early South Asian art. There are some significant auspicious/decorative motifs of Śuṅga–Sātavāhana period that found expression on Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina arts. Some iconographic motifs that started appearing in South Asian art around second-third century BCE were common symbols in Jaina, Hindu, Buddhism and pre-Buddhist art. In the religious art of Hindus, various symbols like Śivaliṅga, Paśupati- Śiva, Mahiṣāsuramardinī, dohad or śālabhañjikā and the giant bird garuḍa are commonly found. Concentric circles in a group of astronomic symbols, the moon and stars, āyāga (pillar), cakra (wheel) with various numbers of spokes (4, 8, 6, 12, 16, 24 and 32), dharmacakra with spokes and stūpa of various types are found in Buddhist art. Among floral and faunal motifs bodhi vr̥kṣa, ghaṛiāla, four animals and back to back animals as in Sārnāth and Sāñcī all find expression. These symbol and roots of art are derived inspiration on from the Egvedic and Sindhu–Sarasvatī art tradition. The real understanding and origin of Early Historic ritual art lies in the study of Sindhu–Sarasvatī symbolism (Sharma 2018a).
Animals
Many-headed animal seals from Moheṅjo-Daṛo and other sites depict heads of bull, unicorn and goat. The many-headed animal might have given the idea of three devas, many-faced Śivaliṅga, back to back animals at Sārnāth, later developed back to back Jaina deities during early historic period. Two-headed Śiva terracotta was reported from Kālībaṅgan (Sharma and Sharma 2012). Broken Seal (No. 407) from Moheṅjo-Daṛo has a multi-headed animal and identical seals are reported from Haṛappā, Dholāvīrā, Bhiranna, Kālībaṅgan, Moheṅjo-Daṛo, Banawālī and other Mature Haṛappan sites. A rare seal from Haṛappa (H 483) depicts animals like elephant, buffalo, horse, bull and crocodile.
Bodhi Tree
Pīpal as a sacred tree got its special status in early South Asian art and religions. The Buddha did his tapasyā for jñāna under a pīpal or bodhi tree at Bodh-Gaya. Pīpal or bodhi tree is shown in early Indian art. In modern times, pīpal is still being worshipped. Antiquity of pīpal as a deity goes back to Pre-Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization. Pīpal leaves are shown on pottery and unicorn seal from Moheṅjo-Daṛo. It is also seen as a symbol in Haṛappan scripts. These are found in Kuṇāl, Rehmānḍherī and other pre-Haṛappan sites on potteries and continued during mature Haṛappan civilization. We can notice in Paśupati seal and sealing from Moheṅjo- Daṛo where God is adorned with horned headdress having pīpal leaves. Seals from Haṛappā (H 187, 188) have a tree figure and another seal from Haṛappā (H 243) has a deity in pīpal arch and pīpal in a row.
In the present day, people hesitate to cut pīpal tree because they have a feeling that the deity is living on pīpal. Every Indian temple has a pīpal tree.
Geometric Shapes
Haṛappan seals confirm that the geometrical shape was present in Sindhu–Sarasvatī seal, tablets, etc. A rectangular mould faience tablet from Haṛappā (H 1701) depicts chessboard divisions. A Lothal seal has multiple stair-type depiction of river symbol and we also notice this on the polychrome pottery from Nal and other sites. Seal no. 51 from Lothal has a fish and river symbol. At Ropaṛ, one rectangular seal has a set of two concentric circles with inscription.
Pīpal motif on Kuṇāl, Early Haṛappan pottery, seal Moheṅjo- Daṛo and pottery from Haṛappan site
Pīpal or bodhi tree on Kuṣāṇa, Mathurā and Śuṅga art, Sāñcī
John Marshall (1973) discovered a silver ring seal from Moheṅjo-Daṛo. The seal has a ring embossed at the back and was found in a fragmented form (Marshall 1973: pl. 13). The large square bezels were very rare in ancient rings. The square border of a flat bezel has two lines engraved with an oblique between them. A ring strap of silver is 0.25 wide and is roughly shouldered to the bezel. The back bezel shows traces of having been used and it could be a ring seal. This ring seal is now in the National Museum, New Delhi.
A faience seal from Early Haṛappan phase (1534 A) has a depiction of a square, divided into six triangles. This shows a Koṭ-Dījī art style. A rectangular faience seal with five concentric circles belongs to Early Koṭ- Dījī phases of Haṛappā and suggests an astronomical sign of a star and five planets. Another identical faience seal and a tablet from Haṛappā (H 1537) depict astronomical signs of concentric circle. At Mehi, a circular seal has four sets of three round holes with a hole in the centre.
The three-hole set gives an impression of trefoil motif around the sun. The whole scene gives an impression of the sky. The circumference of the seal is of zigzag type. Another seal was reported from Kālībaṅgan (K 57) which has three concentric circles on ivory counter as an astronomical symbol. Another seal from Kālībaṅgan (K 58) has four concentric circles. One can conclude that all these concentric circles found on seals of Sindhu–Sarasvatī represent the astronomical sign of a planet. Similar depictions we get to see on the terracotta seals from Rohirā have a horned human, a unicorn bull and a wheel with six spokes.
Auspicious Symbols
Pre-Haṛappan potteries discovered from Nal and Rehmānḍherī and other Haṛappan sites represent auspicious symbols present in Haṛappan script. Fish, which is an auspicious symbol, was noticed since Early Haṛappan art and is very well presented in Early Indian art of Kuṣāṇa period (āyāgapaṭa from Mathurā). The symbols of fish and star might represent the sky or the heaven. Two other seals from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (H 4289 and M 375) depict cakra and fish.
Cross Motif
Another round-moulded faience tablet from Haṛappā (H 1703) has a double cross and circle on four sides. A faience tablet (H 1694) has the svastika clockwise while another (H 1696) has it anticlockwise. Two faience- moulded tablets from Haṛappā (H 1697 and H 1696) have the depiction of multiple crosses. Another faience tablet from Haṛappā (H 1699) has the depiction of concentric square. Another faience tablet from Haṛappā (H 1700) has the depiction of multiple concentric circles. A seal (H 1071) depicts double cross design. Identical double cross-design faience seal was discovered from Kanmer, a Mature Haṛappan site in Gujarat.
Another Lothal seal (L 49) has the depiction of a double cross. The cross is a universal symbol and its antiquity goes back to Acheulean Mousterian period and its earlier evidence is on the engraved cross on
Cross symbols on Haṛappan seals and potteries
a pebble found at Tata in Hungary (Sharma 2015, 2016). A seal (H 185) from Haṛappā has a cross symbol. A double cross symbol was found on Rāvī phase potteries of Haṛappā.
Svastika
A ring shown at the bottom of the plate whose bezel is 1” sq. bears the design of a cross and semi-cross, similar to the logo of Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts (Marshal 1973: pls 34-35) and the combined design looks like a multiple cross or multiple svastika.
Another seal from Mohenjo-Daṛo (M 354) depicts a svastika in anticlockwise direction. A seal from Haṛappā (H 165) has multiple svastika symbols. Seals (H 69, H 71, H 72) from Haṛappā have svastika symbols which are both clockwise and anticlockwise. Another seal from Haṛappā (H 128) depicts nine crosses.
A rectangular clay tablet from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (182 B) is with multiple svastikas, both clockwise and anticlockwise with three Haṛappan graffities; on the other side, it has a tiger man with a musical instrument (drum) and a ritual symbol. This scene depicts ritual activities.
Pl. 3.4: Cross symbols on Haṛappan seals and potterie (A and B – multiple svastika symbol on Mauryan pottery. C– Logo of IGNCA, Delhi)
Wheel Cakra
Wheels with six or twelve spokes are present in Sindhu–Sarasvatī art. Six- spoked wheel, symbol of Haṛappā, was reported in Kharoṣṭhī inscriptions of Kuṣāṇa Age at rock painting of Zarkhand, Bahrain and Dholāvīrā. Haṛappan ratha-citti burial has twelve spokes in its plan. These four, six, twelve spokes of wheel of Sindhu–Sarasvatī Age later developed as eight, sixteen, twenty-four and thirty-two spokes during Early Historic period in south Asian art. We notice this on the Aśoka Pillar at Sārnāth and on Viṣṇu images of Early and Medieval Indian art. Stories in plan of Buddhist stūpa at Saṅghol of Kuṣāṇa Age and other side have twelve twenty-four and thirty-two spokes; six spokes at the base of plan. A Haṛappan tablet depicts a deity on elephant with six-spoked wheel symbol on its top. Other side depicts a human between two tigers.
Wheel-type ratha-citti shape is a unique find at Dholāvīrā (2200–2000 BCE). Such monuments were also reported at burial in Bahrain which have human skeletons, but at Dholāvīrā, it is a symbolic citti while the Bahrain citti is a ratha-citti. Cakra plan has twelve spokes. The ratha-cakra plan of Saṅghol stūpa of Kuṣāṇa has twelve, twenty-four, thirty-two spokes in various circles of ground plan. Saṅghol, Sārnāth and Causā show twelve, twenty-four, thirty-two spokes of cakra that are a continuous tradition of South Asia since the Indus–Sarasvatī period.
Buddhist stūpas at Sārnāth, Saṅghol and Nāgārjunakoṇḍa are based on the ratha-citti plan of cakra with eight, twelve, twenty-four, thirty-two spokes. Wheel of dhamma has its roots in the ratha-citti wheel cakra of Dholāvīrā. Louria Nandangaṛh stūpa is dated pre-Buddhist. The Egvedic period is dated as Early Chalcolithic (5500–3000 BCE). The references to citti and wheel ratha cakra citti (altar) are in the post-Vedic literature like the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. Antiquity of the wheel symbol could be traced back to the Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata periods. The solar symbol spokes are mentioned in the Ṛgveda. Cakra discovered from Sārnāth wheel, kept on top of four lion, has twenty-four spokes. The Jaina cakra found at Causā has twenty-four spokes which has its roots in symbols of Indus–Sarasvatī. A Kharoṣṭhī inscription dated Early Kuṣāṇa period has twelve spokes which shows its continuity from Indus–Sarasvatī civilization tradition. All the Haṛappan wheels have six and twelve spokes. A few wheels of the Post-Haṛappan period have eight and sixteen spokes. In the Aśoka cakra at Sārnāth, we have twenty-four spokes on wheel, representing the Haṛappan tradition. We also have four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two spokes on wheel which are noticed in the cakra of Viṣṇu during Early Historic period.
Number Seven
The number seven was used for depicting Saptarṣi and Sapta-Mātr̥kā during Early Historic art. The number seven was also sacred in art during the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization period. A round clay tablet from Nindawāṛī dated 3000–2800 BCE has seven round circular holes that are surrounded by concentric circles. In the middle there is a concentric circle. The whole scene depicts the planet earth in the centre surrounded by astronomical number “7” and this was sacred during the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization, and it continued in Early Indian art in developed iconographic form. Another moulded terracotta tablet from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (M 1430) depicts images seen at three sides. They are a tree and a buffalo, a bullock cart and a three animal-headed deity. Three animal-headed male deity of Sindhu–Sarasvati civilization has roots in the three devas concept during Early Historic Age.
Six and eight-spoked copper wheels,Early Haṛappan, Mehrgaṛh
Kāla cakras – (a) sixteen spokes, Śuṅga Causā; (b) sixteen spokes, Śuṅga Sāñcī; (c) thirty-two spokes Sārnāth, Mauryan; (d) twelve spokes, Haṛappan; (e) ten spokes (silver) Sārnāth
Pl. 3.7: Six and eight-spoked wheels and tablets on copper, Early Haṛappan, Mehrgaṛh
Pūrṇakumbha
A round medallion of carnelian stone from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depicts pūrṇaghaṭa (kalaśa). Unicorn pūrṇaghaṭa had been depicted in Early Historic Period art at Amarāvatī and the same continues in modern times during the performance of some rituals.
Spoked Wheel Citti
R.S. Bisht noticed in his excavation at Dholāvīrā that ritual funerary monuments (stūpas) and their shapes have roots in the past Haṛappan semi-circular stupa of the Post-Vedic period. Roots of stūpa of citti go back
Pl. 3.9: Kalaśa, a unicorn ritual pot on stone pendant from Moheṅjo-Daṛo
Pl. 3.10: Kalaśa, modern
to the Egvedic period which is a contemporary of Late Neolithic, Pre- and Early Sindhu–Sarasvatī (5500–3500 BCE) period. Ground plans of Saṅghol, Mathurā and Nāgārjunakoṇḍa have thirty-two spokes ratha-citti, sixteen- spokes ratha-citti in second floor and eight spokes ratha-citti in third floor. The ratha-citti plan of twelve spokes was noticed at Dholāvīrā ratha-citti burial. The stūpa or citti fully evolved during the Mauryan–Śuṅga period but it seems that its origin and roots lay in the Sarasvatī civilization period (2800–2000 BCE). We first notice the fully developed stage symbol during the Śuṅga–Sātavāhana period at the railing and the gateway of Sāñcī, Bharhut, Amarāvatī and other sites of South Asia. At the beginning, stūpa was hemispherical on rectangular platform and later in the first century BCE to the second century CE, it developed into a cylindrical drum base in Amaravatī and other sites in north Deccan. The āyāga-mañca and drum base developed in the Sātavāhana period art. Āyāga pillar, āyāga-paṭṭa and āyāga-mañca symbols were noticed during the second century BCE and its roots are present in the protohistoric period. Spoked ratha-citti that we notice at the Buddhist stūpas of Saṅghol and Nāgārjunakoṇḍa and a drum-shaped stūpa were erected at these sites.
Burials
One burial jar from Cemetery H depicts a “Journey to Heaven” or jannat(svarga). Here two bulls are shown taking a human being to heaven. On the top panel, a symbol of trefoil and star is shown which represents the heaven. Below the figure of bulls, the earth is shown. At the lowest part, water (or petals) is shown. Here the three lokas, the ākāśa, pr̥thvī and pātāla, are represented in a symbolic way. Whole scene depicts a journey to heaven after the death. This concept of a journey to heaven after death was popular in Indian art and continued during the modern period in South Asia and other regions of the world. An identical scene depicted on other burials is on pots from Moheṅjo-Daṛo, Chanhu-Daṛo and Haṛappā which shows two bulls (Nandi, the symbol of Paśupati) help human beings in their future journey to heaven after death.
Mature Haṛappan terracotta spoked wheels from Bhiranna and Rākhīgaṛhī
Cist and cairn stone burial was discovered at Dholāvīrā. This shows the roots of post-Haṛappan megalithic burial tradition. This is a prototype of later period megalithic burial. During megalithic period it developed into various types that were associated with Early Iron Age at Dholāvīrā stone. Cist and cairn belong to the later stage of Bronze Age urban civilization (2200–2000 BCE). Rock-cut chamber burial ritual was also reported from Dholāvīrā and these types were more developed during the Post-Haṛappan Megalithic tradition. Round cairn burial was egg-shaped and these were made of stone rubbles. There are a few composite groves made of stone block which confirm the roots of later shapes in Megalithic stone monument burial which had its origin in Late Mature Haṛappan civilization. We also get the above-mentioned stone burials from sites in Southeast Asia and other sites of the world. Megalithic or stonehenge could be a universal ritual tradition. Elsewhere, at burial and stonehenge sites in the UK, we have pillar or menhir- type stone burials which are arranged in various plan forms.
Hemispheric citti burials discovered near a water body (a reservoir) at Dholāvīrā town by Bisht are of great ritual value. He has named it “tumil” type and called them ratha-citti burials. These were made of mud brick and stone rubbles of various sizes and were covered with single stone slabs which were found in broken pieces. Another Tumulus I or hemispherical citti burial is dated around 2250 BCE. It is made of mud brick and stone blocks and is made in ratha-cakra plan of stūpa and has twelve spokes like a ratha-cakra wheel.
Beside these stone burials, there are various traditions of disposal of dead in Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization. These include oval pit burial, fractional pot burial and encircled rock-cut burial. Cremation and the disposal of its ashes in the river were also prevalent. In all burials, the dead were kept in the north–south direction which confirms that their ancestors came from the north, perhaps from Mehrgaṛh in Baluchistan. During the Early Haṛappan period, dead were kept in north–south direction and even to the present day, whether cremating or burying, the dead are kept in north–south direction.
This ratha-citti burial shows continuous Egvedic traditions which were more developed of cairn circle during Megalithic Age around fifth century CE. These were developed as stūpas, and the modern samādhi (platform at śamaśāna ghāṭ) is a developed stage of citti.
Lotus
Lotus leaves were reported on the Early Haṛappan potteries of the Rāvī phase of Haṛappā. Silver lotus flower with depiction of triśūla or triratna of Early Haṛappan Age was reported from Kuṇāl. Silver puṣpa (flower petal) with the symbol of triśūla or a tiara or an archaic śrīvatsa was reported from the Early Harappan site at Kuṇāl, having a tradition of Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization.
Ratha-citti burials at Dholāvīrā and in Bahrain
Turine Symbol
The Nandipāda (“foot of Nandi”) is an ancient Nandi symbol, also called a “taurine” symbol, representing a bull’s hoof for the mark left by the foot of a bull in the ground.
a and b: Terracotta nandīpada from Bhiranna and Moheṅjo-Daṛo. c: Silver nandīpada from Sārnāth (Śuṅga period), and d: Late Haṛappan pot, depicting nandīpada
Trefoil Design
We notice trefoil motifs together with stars on potteries and sculptures of Sindhu–Sarasvatī culture. These can be seen on clothes of stone priest of Moheṅjo-Daṛo and on stone ram from Ur (Mesopotamia). The trefoil motif used in Haṛappan art gives an impression of some deities like priest king, etc. These are gods of sky or heaven. Decoration of trefoil design is still common in modern times in South Asia and we are using this symbol in decorating the floor. Turine symbol, trefoil design and star symbol were found on Late Harappan potteries of cemetery H.
: a: Trefoil design on pedestal Moheṅjo-Daṛo; b. trefoil on
a priest from Moheṅjo-Daṛo; c. trefoil on a ram from Moheṅjo-Daṛo;
- trefoil on a ram from Bahrain; e. trefoil on a ram from Ur (Mesopotamia); and f. trefoil in modern times, used in flooring
Yakṣa/Yogī
Bull-headed yakṣa or yaksi or figure which we notice on Proto Jaina yakṣa during Early Medieval art was present in the terracotta art of Dholāvirā and a few other Haṛappan sites. Sometimes we notice a seated male deity Paśupati on fragmentary seal from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depicting Paśupati Śiva in Yogic or dhyāna-mudrā posture. Seated yogīs and standing males with long hands in kāyotsarga pose, all found in terracottas of later period, were present in the Sindhu–Sarasvatī art.
Horned Headdressed Deity
A tablet from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (M 3101) depicts a seated horned head- dressed Paśupati with pīpal motif and a three-symbol inscription. On its other side is depicted a tiger and a female on a tree. This is partly identical with other seals from Haṛappā (H 1970) that depict a man with a tiger, a cakra with six spokes and on its reverse a female deity killing a buffalo.
Another seal from Dholāvīrā depicts horned standing Paśupati between two barbed harpoons and is identical with barbed harpoon of copper hoard weapon discovered from Mīṭhāthal, Haryana, an Indus–Sarasvatī site. Another seal (H 179) from Haṛappā depicts a horned headdressed male deity standing beneath a pīpal arch. This could be the pīpal devatā.
A pīpal leaf with a horned headdressed Paśupati was found of Early Haṛappan period on pottery at Koṭ-Dījī and at Burzahom, and on grey ware from Banawālī. Padri jar and potteries from Kālībaṅgan and Kuṇāl are of Early Haṛappan Koṭ-Dījī phase sites of Sindhu–Sarasvatī region.
The horned headdressed Paśupati in a broken seal from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depicts the seated Paśupati with a fish and a star. This suggests Paśupati as the god of sky (heaven or jannat). A total of seven seals discovered from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depict seated Paśupati while one is a copper tablet seal from Lakhaṅjo-Daṛo.
Arghya and Givaliṅga
Arghya and śivalinga together were reported from Moheṅjo-Daṛo, Haṛappā, Dholāvīrā and Kālībaṅgan which confirm the existence of śivaliṅga worship during the Sindhu–Sarasvatī period.
Pl. 3.15:
Circular arghya (base of śivaliṅga), made of red jasper, which looks like the birth-hole of Mother Goddess was found at Moheṅjo-Daṛo and a few others made of sandstone were reported from the new excavations done at Haṛappā and Dholāvīrā. Arghyas are different with round pillar base and āmarū-shaped pillar base which have a flat surface on top. Arghya base of liṅga has big round hole in the middle on which a stone liṅga could be fixed. Arghya, along with liṅga of stone, was reported from Dholāvīrā, Haṛappā and Moheṅjo-Daṛo. Śivaliṅga with arghya terracotta was reported from Kālībaṅgan. The double-faced terracotta human figure from Kālībaṅgan is Śiva. One, two, three and four-faced śivaliṅgas were reported in the Early Historical period art of South Asia, and these show continuity.
Buffalo Woman
One seal (M 349) from Moheṅjo-Daṛo shows a female deity on a tree and a tiger below the tree. Another seal from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depicts a female deity facing a tiger and a tree. These two seals depict deity Ambā, which became popular during Early Medieval art. During the historical period, the tiger was replaced by a lion. In the Mahiṣāsuramardinī images of Early Medieval period, crocodile is replaced by a lion.
Another rare seal from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (M 342) depicts a buffalo-human deity and six symbols and this could be a female deity killing the demon Mahiṣāsura. Another seal H 2026 depicts a horned female deity wearing bangles killing a buffalo. All these seals of the female deity killing the buffalo represent the theme later developed in the Early Indian art during the Śuṅga–Kuṣāṇa transition period (later first century BCE) as Goddess Durgā killing buffalo, i.e. demon Mahiṣāsura. Another seal depicts a female under a tree and attacking a tiger. Seal M 311 from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depicts a horned male tiger and a chimera figure. Another seal (M 309) from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depicts a tiger, a female deity on tree and a wheel symbol. Seal H 176 from Haṛappā depicts a female killing a buffalo and a horned deity.
A horned female deity catching a tiger or sitting on a tree is found on
a steatite seal, clay tablet from Moheṇ̇jo-Daṛo. Same time, they are found in some other seals from Haṛappā and other Mature Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization sites. A horned human fighting with a tiger, bulls and a dragon, and fighting with or standing between a dragon or snakes depict some mythology or folk tales of that period.
Ritual Narrative Scenes
One clay tablet from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depicts the ritual of goat sacrifice and this is also shown on a rectangular tablet in which two goats are eating leaves and a male and a female are preparing for a ritual sacrifice of these animals. Another rectangular steatite seal from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depicts a goat being sacrificed in front of a horned deity who is standing in the arch of a pīpal tree. Seven figures are standing at a lower pedestal, a seated male priest is performing the rituals. The sacrificed goat’s head is kept on a pedestal in front of the deity. Identical fragmentary seal of steatite and one clay tablet were reported from Moheṅjo-Daṛo. The scenes suggest ritual Bakr-id or kurbānī sacrifice.
Goat burials were reported from Mehrgaṛh and other Sindhu–Sarasvatī sites and this confirms the existence of these traditions during Pre-Mature Haṛappan period. During Early Historic period, goats were sacrificed and there is reference in a rock edict of Aśoka where the emperor orders
that a pregnant goat should not be killed in a sacrifice or ritual. At the Kamakhyādevī Temple in Gauhati and the Kālī Temple in Kolkata, goat is still sacrificed. Goats are sacrificed during Bakr-id or kurbānī even in the present days and these activities show a continuous tradition since the Sindhu–Sarasvatī period to the modern days.
Seals depicting Devī Mahiṣāsuramardinī or Durgā killing a buffalo from Haṛappā and Moheṅjo-Daṛo. At one corner there is a seated Śiva
Terracotta tablets from Moheṅjo-Daṛo and Haṛappā depict a female deity killing a buffalo. One clay tablet H 1971 (40078) from Haṛappā, now in Pakistan collection, depicts a female deity killing a buffalo by two barbed harpoons. The harpoon shown in Pl. 3.16 is identical with harpoon of copper hoard weapon. Another seal from Chanhu-Daṛo depicts goats, a man and a pīpal tree and this could be a goat ritual scene. These are reported from Sindhu–Sarasvatī sites. In Lothal, a round seal has the depiction of two goats and a dragon; this also indicates a goat ritual. An engraving of rock painting at Ladakh depicts its continuation during Early Historic period. A round seal was also reported from Khiresara. Another four-sided tablet from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (M 1431) depicts the ritual sacrifice of a ram or a goat or Bakr-id or kurbānī or bali. An adorned headdressed deity along with a tiger, rhino and an elephant is shown here. This ritual is also present on another seal M 1406 from Moheṅjo-Daṛo. The rarest tablet M 422 from Moheṅjo-Daṛo depicts seven figures and the goat sacrifice. This is now in the National Museum, New Delhi.
Arch Motif
Arch on a tablet from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (M 888) shows a svastika symbol anticlockwise along an elephant, a tiger and a horned deity on a tree. This depicts a horned headdressed, seated priest/deity under the pīpal arch and a head of sacrificed goat. The whole scene depicts the goat sacrifice in some ritual. Another terracotta tablet from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (M 1919) depicts a tiger and a human seated with a scorpion. Its other side shows a standing male and a female performing some activities. This has an inscription in six Haṛappan symbols. During Early Medieval period, the scorpion was associated with Cāmuṇḍā, a female deity who was the goddess of the dead.
A clay tablet from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (M 489) is a depiction of four animals in a row. These are an elephant, a bull, a lion or a tiger and a buffalo. At its other side is a goat and a tree, a man catching animals, a unicorn and a bull, a buffalo, a tiger and a crocodile. In another seal, a female is shown on a tree with two males and its reverse side has multiple triangles and a man. All these scenes represent narratives of a mythological scene. The clay tablets and seals of Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization show some mythological scenes in a narrative art style. In the early historic Śuṅga period, narration became a special feature of Indian art that has its roots in Sindhu–Sarasvatī culture. Animals found here are the animals one observes in the art of Early Historic period (Aśokan period); these being the horse, bull, elephant and lion. Depiction of abacus at Sārnāth goes back to the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization period.
Bow and Arrow
Two rare copper tablets from Moheṅjo-Daṛo (M 582 and 585) depict a horned male figure with a bow and this confirms that bows and arrows were in use during the Mature Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilization period. Legacy of the Haṛappan symbol continued during the Early Historic period.