Shashi Tiwari
Abstract
The Vedas suggest that the Vedic people were acquainted with the seven rivers and especially with the mighty river Sarasvatī. Vedic mantras present an extraordinary picture of culture, religion, philosophy, economics, polity, ritualistic practices and scientific knowledge of the Vedic people. The description of the mighty Sarasvatī and references related to terms sapta- sindhavaḥ and sapta-sindhuṣu in the R̥gveda show a rich historical tradition of Vedic people in that area. The paper focuses that that reign of seven rivers was the homeland of Rgvedic people and culture.
Introduction
There are so many questions under discussion related to the Vedic people as part of the Indian history, religion, mythology, and civilization. Whole of nineteenth century was dedicated to the study of language and literature of Vedic and ancient Sanskrit texts where the study of dates and interpretations were done. In 1907, came archaeological evidence from Boghazkoi which established the existence of the names of the Egvedic deities in fourteenth century BCE. In 1920, the ancient cities of Haṛappā and Moheṅjo-Daṛo were discovered. It is understood generally that Haṛappan civilization began at about 3300 BCE.
Evidence from within the Vedas suggests that the Vedic people were acquainted with the seven rivers and especially with the mighty river Sarasvatī. The description of the Sarasvatī and references related to terms sapta-sindhavaḥ show a rich historical tradition of the Vedic people in that
area. The important point is their fascination about Sapta-Sindhu area and the Sarasvatī. The Aitareya and Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa repeatedly mention that the Sarasvatī got fanned out in deserts or dried up. The description of ornaments, jewellery, houses, birds, animals and plants, food and other things are also relevant in this context to decide about the place and period of Vedic culture. Vedic civilization reflected in the R̥gveda is seen developing gradually in all aspects in the later Vedic texts. Keeping in mind the scientific principle of development of any civilization, it will be appropriate to think the early period of the Vedic civilization as 5000–4000 BCE.
I
There are so many questions related to the Vedic people under discussion as part of Indian history, religion, mythology and civilization. Particularly the hunt for their original land has been a topic of research among Indologists and historians since Sir William Jone’s pronouncement in 1786 in Calcutta that “Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Celtic and Old Persian were related languages with a common source.” Whole of nineteenth century was dedicated to the study of language and literature of Vedic and ancient Sanskrit texts where the study date, editions and interpretations were done. The publication of two volumes of Vedic Index by A.A. Macdonell and A.B. Keith’s (Vol II, 1982:230) in 1912 was almost the closing work in this field. Macdonell placed the Aryan entry into India at about 1500 BCE. The establishment of the notion of a common Indo- European heritage, at the beginning of British rule in India, was a powerful instrument to rule Indians, so this view was highlighted variously. In 1907, ironically, came the archaeological evidence from Boghazkoi (east Turkey), which established the existence of the names of the Egvedic deities in fourteenth century BCE.
In 1920s, the ancient cities of Haṛappā and Moheṅjo-Daṛo were discovered. Tentatively, a time period of 2500–1500 BCE was assigned to these cities at that time. Since the estimated date for the end of these cities coincided with the estimated date for Aryan entry into India, it was emphasized that these cities came to an end by Aryan invaders. Aryan invasion was sometimes called as Aryan migration. In either case, Haṛappans were declared as non-Aryans. Now many historians and Sanskrit scholars are refuting these theories on the basis
of various categories of evidences. They think that the Homeland of Aryans was Indian continent or Aryans themselves were Haṛappans. It is understood generally that Haṛappan civilization began at about 3300 BCE and took its earliest roots from Mehrgaṛh. Excavation has shown that this civilization possessed a writing system, as well as a social and economic system.
II
Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in Indian history for which we have written records. The vast Vedic literature provides important materials to understand every aspect of the Vedic people and their views. The mantras present an extraordinary picture of culture, religion, philosophy, economics, polity, ritualistic practices and scientific knowledge of the Vedic people. It looks such an organized and developed society based on agriculture, arts and crafts, trade and industry, education, characterized by a deep interest in nature and environment, and moved by spiritual urges. These facts are proved in my papers written on agriculture, economics, architecture, birds, animals, food, ornaments, weapons, society and education of the Vedic people. The authors of the Vedas never say any word about their migration or invasion in the whole Vedic literature. Rather they indicate about their stable and calm establishment.
III
Evidence from within the Vedas suggests that the Vedic people were acquainted with the seven rivers and especially with the mighty river Sarasvatī. The description of the mighty Sarasvatī and references related to terms sapta- sindhavaḥ and sapta-sindhuṣu in the R̥gveda show a rich historical tradition of Vedic people in that area. The country of seven rivers was very dear to them. The Sarasvatī is described as sapta svasā (having seven sisters – VI.61.10, VIII.41.2). It is called as the mother of seven rivers (sarasvatī saptathī sindhumātā
- 36.6). They talk and explore about it. It is a great river rushing down from mountains towards the ocean (ekā cetat sarasvatī nadīnāṁ suciryati giribhya ā samudrāt – VII.95.2). It is far superior to her companions (uttarā sakhibhyaḥ
- 95.4). It surpasses all other streams by her sheer majesty (prabābadhanā rathyeva yati – VII.95.1) and glory (pra yā mahimnā mahināsu cekite –VI.61.13). She is best of rivers, best of mothers and best of goddesses (ambitame nadītame devitame sarasvati – II.41.16).
The core region between the Sarasvatī and Dr̥ṣadvatī rivers was called varā pr̥thivyā (the earth’s best place) and nabhā pr̥thivyā (the navel of the earth). It also has been known as “Kurukṣetra” (the land of the Kuru people). The Manusmr̥ti called it “Brahmāvarta” (the divine land). According to mantras, the Vedic people feel affection for this area because their civilization began and flourished there in the Sarasvatī basin since 5000–4000 BCE. This region was the homeland of the Vedic Āryan people. Broadly it was the Sapta-Sindu region where the Sarasvatī was the main river. According to two mantras, there were three sets of seven rivers (i.e. twenty-one rivers) – triḥ sapta sasrā nadyo mahīr (X.64.8) and pra saptasapta tredhā hi (X.75.1). The Vājasaneyī Saṁhitā (34.11) talks about five rivers joining the Sarasvatī. So, descriptions vary slightly due to the symbolic poetry of Vedic seers. But important point is their fascination about Sapta-Sindhu area and the Sarasvatī. The Aitareya and Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa repeatedly mention that the Sarasvatī got fanned out in deserts or dried up. The Pañcaviṁśa Brāhmaṇa (25.10.6) and Jaiminīya Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa (4.26) mention about a place called “Vinaśana” where the Sarasvatī River vanished. Later drying up of the Sarasvatī led to migrations of people towards north-westward or westward of the Sarasvatī River system. This is the opinion of many scholars of today.
IV
The Atharvaveda’s Bhūmisūkta depicts the picture of Indian land. It has six seasons (XII.1.36), colourful soil, sea, rivers, mountains and glorious description of ancestors. In the R̥gveda we find names of only three seasons – vasanta, grīṣma and śarada (X.90.6) but they are indicative of winter and rainy seasons. These seasons are familiar to northern India.
V
The principal food of the Egvedic Āryans consisted of barley-flour and its various preparations, rice and other cereals, fruits, honey, clarified butter (ghee), curd and other preparations using milk. The sowing, ripening and ploughing of yava are mentioned in the Egvedic verses. Etymologically barley was called yava because its grain, though one, has two parts distinctly marked, yet not separated. Specimens of barley unearthed from the ruins of Moheṅjo-
Daṛo show its use in that region even in the Egvedic age. It is certain that barley and some other grains were cultivated in the Egvedic times. Barley was offered to gods. In their prayers, Vedic people are found asking gods for this grain. In the Atharvaveda, it is called one of the two immortal sons of heaven, i.e. barley and rice (VIII.7.20). These two were the staple crops that were cultivated by the Egvedic Āryans, one in winter or spring and the other during the rainy season. It may be that, as the climate of Punjab was extremely cold in the Egvedic times, the cultivation of barley was more convenient and yielded bumper crops than that of rice. Moreover vrīhi (rice) is frequently referred to in the later Vedic works. Dhānya, dhāna are other words which indicate grains in general. It is but natural that for agriculture and cultivation a stable society and living is needed. Thus seasons, grains and agriculture prove the homeland of Āryans as the region of seven rivers near Punjab.
It is important to note that salt (lavaṇa) is not mentioned in the R̥gveda but is frequently mentioned later. Keith and Macdonell (1982: 230) have observed in Vedic Index that
… it is somewhat surprising, if the regions then occupied by the Indians were the Punjab and the Indus Valley, where salt abounds, it is however, quite possible that a necessary commodity might happen to be passed over without literary mention in a region, where it is very common.
It is quite sure that Āryans were familiar with it because in a Egvedic mantra
they talk about thirst (tr̥ṣṇā) in between the waters of ocean (VII.89.4).
VI
We find the description of ornaments and jewellery in the R̥gveda, almost similar to what we found in Haṛappan excavations. In both civilizations people used them to decorate head, ears, neck, fingers, chest, hands, waist and legs by these decorative items made of metal, mud or stone, such as maṇigrīva, niṣka, khādī, sraj, rukma and hiraṇyavartanī.
VII
Generally, it is said that the Egvedic people were living in mud houses in villages. We found that houses and building materials were not unknown to them. In one mantra, the worshipper says to Varuṇa that “he does not want
to live in a house made of clay” – Mo ṣu varuṇa mr̥ṇmayaṁ gr̥haṁ rājan nahaṁ gamam (VII.89.1). Instead, he asks Parjanya Deva to give tridhātu śaraṇam śarma (VII.101.2), i.e. “three storeyed dwelling” according to H.H. Wilson (1997) and “tribhūmika house” according to Sāyaṇa. Āyası̣ pūḥ (VII.95.1), i.e. “fort of iron” is used as a metaphor. Iṣṭikās, meaning bricks, are described variously in the Brāhmaṇa texts. Dvāra for door and chardi for terrace are used in the R̥gveda. Two śālāsūktas of the Atharvaveda describe about bigger and systematic house and thus show that the Vedic people used to desire clean and strong houses for their living.
Study of Egvedic birds, animals and plants is also relevant in this context to decide about the place and period of the Vedic culture. Undoubtedly these too indicate their Indian origin.
Conclusion
Vedic civilization reflected in the R̥gveda is later developed in all aspects in the post-Vedic texts. Keeping in mind the scientific principle of development of any civilization, it will be appropriate to think the early period of the Vedic civilization as 5000–4000 BCE. Its later period may be nearby Haṛappan period. Further, other categories of evidences, incorporated with literary evidences, may provide advance chronological findings of our ancient times.